This section was a little tedious. Basically the same references to the empires and affects of the spread of the empires. Chapter 11 did an ok job of explaining the spread of Islam and life of Muhammad. I think Strayer could have given more detail on Muhammads teachings and religious beliefs, especially after the events of 9/11. The divide in the Islamic world was touched on briefly, but also could have gone into more detail as far as "rightful" successor to Muhammad and turmoil that ensued after his death regarding power. The most important aspect of this section, to me, was how the spread of Islam also created a network of trade and improvements to existing technology. The pilgrimmage to Mecca allowed for an infusion of cultures to flourish.
Chapter 12 discusses the Mongol empire. This was interesting to me. I had heard of Chinggis Khan and knew he was a strong leader that used "barbaric" methods for conquest. What was interesting to me is that the empire originated from a small army into a more powerful army that, according to Strayer, needed something to do, thus the conquest and expansion towards China. There was no real plan for the empire, it just took on a life of its own. The Mongols ruled with brutal force. However, if there was something you could contribute to their lifestyle, you were saved, but under their strict command. I wish Strayer went into more detail about the plague that originated in Central Asia and spread to Europe. Strayer gives some detail as to the gruesomeness and spread of the plague, however I would have liked to hear more on how the societies and communities were affected and how they handled the ineffected and dying. Its amazing that this was the first recorded instance of biological warfare. Although the Mongols were barbaric and cruel, they're empire was impressive, especially since they hay had no original intentions of growing so large.
Chapter 13 discusses the power and wealth of China, which seems to be a reoccurring topic throughout the chapters thus far. It is impressive, as far as their power and history, and if anything, I think this should be addressed at the highschool level, as well. I had no idea how much influence China has had over the years and the massiveness of their development and contribution to technology. It's amazing that they had a grand ship, much larger than the ship used by European explorers like Columbus, and yet they never ventured very far. However, like Strayer explains, the Chinese had no need to explore out as they already had what they needed. But it is a bit awesome to think of how much our history would have changed and who the world powers would be today had China ventured out and "discovered" the Americas instead of the Europeans.
Monday, July 18, 2011
Sunday, June 26, 2011
Part Five : European Moment in World History
The revolutions of the Atlantic began with the North American Revolution and seemed to have snow-balled from there. These are described by Strayer as the "democratic revolutions.
We, as students in the United States, are well accustomed to the events leading to and the outcome of the American Revolution, however, it's interesting to see how our independence greatly influenced the revolutions that were to follow. It makes me wonder if this sparked the beginning of the US's belief in being a world leader.
The French Revolution coat-tailed on the American Revolution. The French soldiers that provided assistance to the American colonists returned home full of republican enthusiasm and wanted to make changes on their own homelands. Men such as Napoleon Bonaparte have always been viewed as cruel dictators, although his intentions were for "the good of the people". What was interesting to me is that the Revolution, while brutal and more violent than the American Revolution, had good intent. It was just that their leader used gruesome force, especially the tactics used by Maximilien Robespierre, prior to Bonaparte. What started out as a local revolution, turned into a quest for world-domination.
In the present day, can the US be viewed in this way as well? Occupying lands, "restoring order", where it wasn't necessarily asked? Or is that my own ignorant view as I am not fully knowledgable as I should be with current events.
The Haitian Revolution is one that interests me to great extent and am surprised this was not discussed more in my highschool education. That slaves were completely successful in their revolt is amazing and deserves a lot more recognition than it has been given, and not in a negative manner as it was looked upon during the time.
I wonder how different our world would be and how much more the dynamics and importance of Latin America would be today had those in the Spanish American Revolutions bonded and had a united front. Strayer states they were originally the wealthiest areas and with more sophisticated cultures. Their lands and resources were ideal.
I enjoy learning history and find it interesting to see how when people find a voice, great changes good and bad come to be.
We, as students in the United States, are well accustomed to the events leading to and the outcome of the American Revolution, however, it's interesting to see how our independence greatly influenced the revolutions that were to follow. It makes me wonder if this sparked the beginning of the US's belief in being a world leader.
The French Revolution coat-tailed on the American Revolution. The French soldiers that provided assistance to the American colonists returned home full of republican enthusiasm and wanted to make changes on their own homelands. Men such as Napoleon Bonaparte have always been viewed as cruel dictators, although his intentions were for "the good of the people". What was interesting to me is that the Revolution, while brutal and more violent than the American Revolution, had good intent. It was just that their leader used gruesome force, especially the tactics used by Maximilien Robespierre, prior to Bonaparte. What started out as a local revolution, turned into a quest for world-domination.
In the present day, can the US be viewed in this way as well? Occupying lands, "restoring order", where it wasn't necessarily asked? Or is that my own ignorant view as I am not fully knowledgable as I should be with current events.
The Haitian Revolution is one that interests me to great extent and am surprised this was not discussed more in my highschool education. That slaves were completely successful in their revolt is amazing and deserves a lot more recognition than it has been given, and not in a negative manner as it was looked upon during the time.
I wonder how different our world would be and how much more the dynamics and importance of Latin America would be today had those in the Spanish American Revolutions bonded and had a united front. Strayer states they were originally the wealthiest areas and with more sophisticated cultures. Their lands and resources were ideal.
I enjoy learning history and find it interesting to see how when people find a voice, great changes good and bad come to be.
Monday, June 6, 2011
Chapters 8, 9 and 10
Chapter 8:
Chapter 8 discusses the spread of culture throughout world civilizations by means of trade. The three roads of trades were the Silk Roads, Sea Roads and Sand Roads. The Silk Roads, a land-based trade, promoted exchange across Eurasia. The main luxury good that symbolized this Eurasian exchange system was silk. The Sea Roads trade promoted trade across the Indian Ocean. This sea-based trade was much more economic than the Silk Road trade. The ships were able to accomodate larger and heavier cargoes than camels of the Silk Roads. The Sea Roads were able to carry more goods and products unlike the Silk Roads that were limited to luxury goods for the few. The Sand Roads enabled trade across the Sahara. Camels could go for ten days without water and made the trek across the deserts possible.
The increase in trades prompted the spread of religion, diseases and distinct classifciations of the social network.
Chapter 9:
Chapter 9 goes into the history and prominence of Chinas influence in world history. I never realized how much wealth China and its importance in being a key component of spreading culture and commerce. I also had no idea how much the Chinese culture was the one to mold other Asian cultures.
One bit of information I found interesting was the binding of women's feet. I thought this concept originated from Japan, when in fact, the Japanese adopted this from the Chinese.
Confucianism initially played an important role in the political and social developments of Japan, Vietnam and Korea. The role and rights of women seems to have been a recurring theme, one that was clarified through Chinese acculturation. Unlike Japan, Korea and Vietnam adpoted Chinese culture through military threat or through land occupation. Japan was able to pick and choose what ideals they thought would work with their own customs. I found it fortunate that Koreans and Vietnamese were able to keep their land identity and did not have to identify themselves as Chinese.
Chapter 10:
Chapter 10 discusses Christendom and its eventual violent split into present day Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism. I found this chapter very confusing and did not like how the material was presented. I think Strayer could have discussed more Constantinoples attempts to unify Christianity and then the events and beliefs that led to the eventual split.
Chapter 8 discusses the spread of culture throughout world civilizations by means of trade. The three roads of trades were the Silk Roads, Sea Roads and Sand Roads. The Silk Roads, a land-based trade, promoted exchange across Eurasia. The main luxury good that symbolized this Eurasian exchange system was silk. The Sea Roads trade promoted trade across the Indian Ocean. This sea-based trade was much more economic than the Silk Road trade. The ships were able to accomodate larger and heavier cargoes than camels of the Silk Roads. The Sea Roads were able to carry more goods and products unlike the Silk Roads that were limited to luxury goods for the few. The Sand Roads enabled trade across the Sahara. Camels could go for ten days without water and made the trek across the deserts possible.
The increase in trades prompted the spread of religion, diseases and distinct classifciations of the social network.
Chapter 9:
Chapter 9 goes into the history and prominence of Chinas influence in world history. I never realized how much wealth China and its importance in being a key component of spreading culture and commerce. I also had no idea how much the Chinese culture was the one to mold other Asian cultures.
One bit of information I found interesting was the binding of women's feet. I thought this concept originated from Japan, when in fact, the Japanese adopted this from the Chinese.
Confucianism initially played an important role in the political and social developments of Japan, Vietnam and Korea. The role and rights of women seems to have been a recurring theme, one that was clarified through Chinese acculturation. Unlike Japan, Korea and Vietnam adpoted Chinese culture through military threat or through land occupation. Japan was able to pick and choose what ideals they thought would work with their own customs. I found it fortunate that Koreans and Vietnamese were able to keep their land identity and did not have to identify themselves as Chinese.
Chapter 10:
Chapter 10 discusses Christendom and its eventual violent split into present day Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism. I found this chapter very confusing and did not like how the material was presented. I think Strayer could have discussed more Constantinoples attempts to unify Christianity and then the events and beliefs that led to the eventual split.
Saturday, June 4, 2011
Chapter 5 - Eurasian Cultural Traditions, 500 B.C.E.-500 C.E.
Around 500 B.C.E., there was an emergence of cultural traditions that have shaped the world ever since. The Chinese and Greek were concerned with affairs of this world and credited human rationality with the power to understand reality. Indian, Persian and Jewish cultures were more religious and explored the realm of the divine and its relationship to human life. These new cultural traditions sought to define a single source of order and its meaning in the universe in a moral or religious realm. The concept of compassion and aligning oneself with a higher order flourished.
Some historians credit major social changes for the emergence and spread of these traditions all at the same time; the iron-age technology led to higher productivity and deadlier wars, growing cities increased commerce, the emergence of new states and empires, and new contacts between civilizations.
CHINA:
500 B.C.E was a period of chaos, violence and disharmony. It was the "age of warring states". Chinese thinkers began to consider how order might be restored to the tranquility of earlier times. From this, the foundations of classical traditions of Chinese civilizations evolved.
The Legalist Answer:
The principle for the legalist answer was to use rules or laws that were strictly enforced through a system of rewards and punishments. Mankind was viewed as stupid and shortsighted. Only farmers and soldiers were promoted, others were considered useless. This concept lasted from 221-206 BCE during the Qin Dynasty and was never put into play after.
The Confucian Answer:
Confucius was an educated aristocrat who sought a political position to put his ideas into action, but was never given a position. Confucius believed the moral example of superiors is the answer to disorder. His principle was worldly and practical, concerned with human relationships, effective government and social harmony. He believed that the human society consisted of unequal relationships and if the superior party acts with sincerity and genuine concern for others, the inferior party will respond with obedience. He believed humans have the capacity for improvement and that education was key. He was an advocate of broad liberal arts education, the application of liberal arts education to government problems and the need for rituals and ceremonies that allowed for personal reflection and willingness to strive to perfection. He emphasized the importance of family life and believed family was central and should be a model for political life. He created expectations for government encouraging emperors to keep taxes low, provide for the needs of the people, and give justice. After Legalism was discredited, Confucianism became the ideology of the Chinese state.
The Daoist Answer:
Daoism was opposite of Confucianism. Daoism though Confucianism was useless and made things worse. This principle thought education and striving for improvement was artificial and useless. Daoism urged withdrawal into the world of nature and encouraged behavior that was spontaneous, individualistic and natural. Daoism urged withdrawal into the world of nature and disengage from the public life. The central concept is dao: the way of nature, the underlying principle that governs all natural phenomena. Daoism encouraged small, self-sufficient communities that live a simple life.
INDIA:
Unlike Chinese culture, India embraced the divine and spiritual.
Hinduism:
Hinduism has no historical founder. It was never a single tradition. It was a term derived from others, an association with a particular people and territory, much like Judaism. Hinduism spread into Southeast Asia, but remained associated with India and the Indians. Widely recognized sacred texts, the Vedas, provided some common ground within the diversity of Indian culture and religion. The Vedas were poems, hymns, prayers and rituals compiled by Brahmin priests. Brahmin priests gained power and wealth from their elaborate ritual sacrifices. Initially the Vedas were transmitted orally until around 600 BCE when they were written down in Sanskrit. The Vedas give a good depiction of Indian early civilization of chief competing kingdoms, sacred sounds and fires, gods, sacrifices and rituals.
Upanishads were mystical and philosophical works developed in response to dissatisfaction with Brahmins. They were composed by anonymous introspective thinkers who probed into the inner meaning of sacrifice described in the Vedas.
The central idea is that the individual human soul (atman) is part of Brahman (the World Soul). Brahman is the ultimate reality, the primal unitary energy and divine reality infusing all things. The final goal of humans is the union with Brahman (moksha or "liberation"). Achieving moksha takes many lifetimes. Moksha is liberation from a separate existence. This is the end of the cycle of rebirth and reincarnation known as samsara. Reincarnation depends on one's actions, the law of karma. Human souls migrate from one body to another; the caste system is a register of spiritual progress until moksha is obtained. Beyond the quest for pleasure, wealth, power, and social position which were all considered normal, was moksha.
Buddhism:
Buddhism was founded by Sidharta Gautama, a prince that left luxury to find insight into suffering and the end to suffering. His spiritual journey led to "enlightenment" at the age of 35. His followers saw him as Buddha, the Enlightened One. Buddha believed suffering and sorrow was a result of ego and attachment to self. The "cure" is to live a modest and moral life and through meditation. The goal is to achieve enlightenment or nirvana in which the individual identity would be extinguished along with greed, hatred, delusion, pain and suffering. One would have serenity, even in the midst of difficulty, and compassion for all beings.
Buddhism came from Hindu traditions; the belief that life is an illusion, the idea of karma and rebirth, overcoming the demands of the ego, the practice of meditation and the hope for release from the cycle of rebirth. Although there are many similarities to Hinduism, Buddhism challenged Hinduism. Buddhism is a more simplified and more accessible version of Hinduism. The teachings are more accessible and written in the local language of Pali versus the ancient writing of Sanskrit. It challenged the Hindu caste system and believed individuals had to take responsibility for their own spiritual development. Buddhism supported the monastery and life of meditation. The egalitarian message appealed to the lower-caste and especially Indian women. Initially it was hard for women to join, but eventually a separate order of nuns was formed. It was very liberating for women to find some freedom. They were still considered inferior but were offered more independence than did Hindus.
Buddhism ultimately died out in India as the monasteries were getting wealthy. Economic interests separated those in the monastery from ordinary people. After 1000 CE, competition from Islam and a new popular Hinduism was more accessible which reincorporated into Buddhism and Hinduism. It began in South India and moved northward. There was an emphasis in bhakti (worship) and adoration and identification with a particular deity through song, prayer, and rituals. There was a proliferation of gods and goddesses, primarily Vishnu and Shiva. The new Hinduism assimilated instead of exclude. Although Buddhism disappeared in India, it became the first great universal religion of world history.
Middle East:
The search for God and move toward monotheism was the basis for religious tradition in the Middle East. The radical notion of a single supreme Deity developed in Zoroastrianism and Judaism and became the basis for both Christianity and Islam.
Zoroastrianism:
Zoroastrianism was founded by the Persian prophet Zarathustra. Zoroastrianism challenged polytheism of earlier times. It is said that in response to the violence of the cattle raids, Zarathustra recast polytheism to a single god. Ahura Mazda, a single god, is the source of truth, light and goodness. He would restore the world to its earlier purity and peace. It was the freewill of humankind and a necessity for each individual to choose between good and evil. The followers of Ahura Mazda will have eternal life in Paradise. This principle greatly influenced Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Zoroastrianism never became an active missionary religion. It never spread past Egypt, Mesopotamia and Anatolia. Alexander the Great's invasion destroyed Zoroastrianism initially and even more so with the arrival of Islam and Arabian empires. The believers of Zoroastrianism fled to India and the people became known as Persians. It never spread past Persia. Like Buddhism, Zoroastrian faith vanished from its place of origin.
Judaism:
Judaism was developed amount the Hebrews as recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible. There was a migration from Mesopotamia to Palestine under the leadership of Abraham. A portion of these people fled to Egypt, were enslaved and then escaped to a region of their kinfolk in Palestine. There they established small states which eventually split into two parts, the northern kingdom was called Israel and the southern states were known as Judah. They were considered a displaced people.
Judaism has a distinct conception of God, referred to as Yahweh. He is a powerful and jealous deity who demanded exclusive loyalty which for some, was a difficult requirement. Some Jews turned from pastoral life to agriculture and were continually attracted by fertility gods. The relationship with Yahweh is a contract or covenant. Obey Him and He will protect. Unlike impersonal conceptions of the ultimate reality found in Daoism and Hinduism, Yahweh is a divine person with whom people could actively communicate with. There is a distinctive conception of the divine-singular, transcendent, personal, separate from nature, engaged in history, demanding social justice and moral righteousness above sacrifices and rituals. God provided the foundation on which both Christianity and Islam were built.
Classical Greece:
Classical Greece did not create and enduring religions tradition. Greek thinkers of the classical era generated no lasting religious tradition of world historical importance. The mythological framework was abandoned and in its place developed a form of thinking that bore similarities to secularism of Confucian thought in China. It is uncertain why Greek thought went in that direction, perhaps it is due to the diversity and incoherence of mythology , the intellectual stimulation of great civilizations and the possible influence of the growing role of law in Athenian political life.
Greeks seldom agreed with one another. There was an emphasis on argument, logic and relentless questioning. The best example was Socrates of Athens. He engaged others in conversations of the good life. He challenged conventional ideas about the importance of wealth and power in living and instead urged the pursuit of wisdom and virtue. He was critical of Athenian democracy and often had positive things to say about Sparta. Socrates died at the hand of an Athenian jury who felt philosophy was a threat as well as an engaging past time.
Greek rationalism, art, literature and theater persisted long after the glory days of Athens. The Roman Empire facilitated the spread of Greek culture. Christian theology was expressed in terms of Greek philosophical concepts. Greek texts were preserved in Byzantium. Direct access to Greek texts was more difficult in the West but was then rediscovered in the 12th century. Greek legacy has been viewed as the central element of emerging "Western" civilization. It has played a role in formulating updated Christian theology and Europe's scientific revolution. It also entered Islamic culture and its rediscovery in the West was largely in part through Arabic translations.
Comparing Jesus and the Buddha:
Jesus:
from the province of Judea in the Roman Empire
was a rural, small-town worker from a lower-class family
had intense devotion to a single, personal deity
had relationship with God
performed miracles
teachings had sharper social and political edge than Buddha
spoke clearly and on behalf of the lower class and those not accepted in society
had only 3 years of public life
teachings antagonized Jewish and Roman authorities
was crucified as a common criminal
Buddha:
born to royalty and luxury
ignored the supernatural
involved no miracles
taught path of intense self-effort, ethical living and mindfulness as a means of ending suffering
had 40 years of public life
his teachings and message was less threatening to those in political power
he died a natural death at the age of 80
Both Jesus and the Buddha called for personal transformation of their followers through letting go of things that cause suffering. Neither had any intention of founding a new religion. Both sought to reform traditions from which they had come.
Both Jesus and the Buddha became spiritual leaders who claimed to have personally experienced another level of reality. These "wisdom teachers" challenged conventional values of their time and urged renunciation of wealth and emphasized the importance of love and compassion. Although neither claimed divine status, both were transformed by their followers into gods. Their teachings spread widely beyond their places of origin.
Christianity and Buddhism: New Religions
Christianity:
Christianity became a world religion from St. Paul. Christianity spread gradually with the Roman Empire after Jesus' death. Reports of Jesus' miracles and healings attracted converts by the way members cared for one another. Constantine's conversion gave strong state support. Roman rulers sought to use popular Christianity as the glue to hold together the diverse population in a weakening state.
Christianity was a hierarchical organization. It excluded women in leadership and priestly roles. The bishop of Rome emerged as the dominant leader, the pope. There was a concern for unity in matters of doctrine and practice which contributed to the split between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox. There was and continues to be a controversy about the nature of Jesus, his relationship to God, and the doctrine of the Trinity.
Buddhism:
Buddhism was supported by Ashoko. Buddhism never promoted exclusion of other faiths. It sought religious tolerance rather than uniformity. It died out in India as it was absorbed into reviving Hinduism.
There was a clash over various interpretations of Buddhas teachings, prompting two schools of Buddhism, Theravada and Mahaya. The division was not as violent as Christendom. And unlike Christendom, there is no hierarchy in Buddhism.
Closing:
Religion is a sensitive subject for historians. For believers, religion goes beyond earthly evidence. Religions present themselves as timeless, but historians see the development over time as a human phenomenon. There is a constant debate on which tradition represents the "real" version of faith.
Chapter Questions:
1. How does the Daoist outlook differ from that of Confucianism?
2. In what ways does Buddhism reflect Hindu traditions and in what ways does it challenge them?
3. In what ways are Jesus and the Buddha similar and in what ways are they different?
Some historians credit major social changes for the emergence and spread of these traditions all at the same time; the iron-age technology led to higher productivity and deadlier wars, growing cities increased commerce, the emergence of new states and empires, and new contacts between civilizations.
CHINA:
500 B.C.E was a period of chaos, violence and disharmony. It was the "age of warring states". Chinese thinkers began to consider how order might be restored to the tranquility of earlier times. From this, the foundations of classical traditions of Chinese civilizations evolved.
The Legalist Answer:
The principle for the legalist answer was to use rules or laws that were strictly enforced through a system of rewards and punishments. Mankind was viewed as stupid and shortsighted. Only farmers and soldiers were promoted, others were considered useless. This concept lasted from 221-206 BCE during the Qin Dynasty and was never put into play after.
The Confucian Answer:
Confucius was an educated aristocrat who sought a political position to put his ideas into action, but was never given a position. Confucius believed the moral example of superiors is the answer to disorder. His principle was worldly and practical, concerned with human relationships, effective government and social harmony. He believed that the human society consisted of unequal relationships and if the superior party acts with sincerity and genuine concern for others, the inferior party will respond with obedience. He believed humans have the capacity for improvement and that education was key. He was an advocate of broad liberal arts education, the application of liberal arts education to government problems and the need for rituals and ceremonies that allowed for personal reflection and willingness to strive to perfection. He emphasized the importance of family life and believed family was central and should be a model for political life. He created expectations for government encouraging emperors to keep taxes low, provide for the needs of the people, and give justice. After Legalism was discredited, Confucianism became the ideology of the Chinese state.
The Daoist Answer:
Daoism was opposite of Confucianism. Daoism though Confucianism was useless and made things worse. This principle thought education and striving for improvement was artificial and useless. Daoism urged withdrawal into the world of nature and encouraged behavior that was spontaneous, individualistic and natural. Daoism urged withdrawal into the world of nature and disengage from the public life. The central concept is dao: the way of nature, the underlying principle that governs all natural phenomena. Daoism encouraged small, self-sufficient communities that live a simple life.
INDIA:
Unlike Chinese culture, India embraced the divine and spiritual.
Hinduism:
Hinduism has no historical founder. It was never a single tradition. It was a term derived from others, an association with a particular people and territory, much like Judaism. Hinduism spread into Southeast Asia, but remained associated with India and the Indians. Widely recognized sacred texts, the Vedas, provided some common ground within the diversity of Indian culture and religion. The Vedas were poems, hymns, prayers and rituals compiled by Brahmin priests. Brahmin priests gained power and wealth from their elaborate ritual sacrifices. Initially the Vedas were transmitted orally until around 600 BCE when they were written down in Sanskrit. The Vedas give a good depiction of Indian early civilization of chief competing kingdoms, sacred sounds and fires, gods, sacrifices and rituals.
Upanishads were mystical and philosophical works developed in response to dissatisfaction with Brahmins. They were composed by anonymous introspective thinkers who probed into the inner meaning of sacrifice described in the Vedas.
The central idea is that the individual human soul (atman) is part of Brahman (the World Soul). Brahman is the ultimate reality, the primal unitary energy and divine reality infusing all things. The final goal of humans is the union with Brahman (moksha or "liberation"). Achieving moksha takes many lifetimes. Moksha is liberation from a separate existence. This is the end of the cycle of rebirth and reincarnation known as samsara. Reincarnation depends on one's actions, the law of karma. Human souls migrate from one body to another; the caste system is a register of spiritual progress until moksha is obtained. Beyond the quest for pleasure, wealth, power, and social position which were all considered normal, was moksha.
Buddhism:
Buddhism was founded by Sidharta Gautama, a prince that left luxury to find insight into suffering and the end to suffering. His spiritual journey led to "enlightenment" at the age of 35. His followers saw him as Buddha, the Enlightened One. Buddha believed suffering and sorrow was a result of ego and attachment to self. The "cure" is to live a modest and moral life and through meditation. The goal is to achieve enlightenment or nirvana in which the individual identity would be extinguished along with greed, hatred, delusion, pain and suffering. One would have serenity, even in the midst of difficulty, and compassion for all beings.
Buddhism came from Hindu traditions; the belief that life is an illusion, the idea of karma and rebirth, overcoming the demands of the ego, the practice of meditation and the hope for release from the cycle of rebirth. Although there are many similarities to Hinduism, Buddhism challenged Hinduism. Buddhism is a more simplified and more accessible version of Hinduism. The teachings are more accessible and written in the local language of Pali versus the ancient writing of Sanskrit. It challenged the Hindu caste system and believed individuals had to take responsibility for their own spiritual development. Buddhism supported the monastery and life of meditation. The egalitarian message appealed to the lower-caste and especially Indian women. Initially it was hard for women to join, but eventually a separate order of nuns was formed. It was very liberating for women to find some freedom. They were still considered inferior but were offered more independence than did Hindus.
Buddhism ultimately died out in India as the monasteries were getting wealthy. Economic interests separated those in the monastery from ordinary people. After 1000 CE, competition from Islam and a new popular Hinduism was more accessible which reincorporated into Buddhism and Hinduism. It began in South India and moved northward. There was an emphasis in bhakti (worship) and adoration and identification with a particular deity through song, prayer, and rituals. There was a proliferation of gods and goddesses, primarily Vishnu and Shiva. The new Hinduism assimilated instead of exclude. Although Buddhism disappeared in India, it became the first great universal religion of world history.
Middle East:
The search for God and move toward monotheism was the basis for religious tradition in the Middle East. The radical notion of a single supreme Deity developed in Zoroastrianism and Judaism and became the basis for both Christianity and Islam.
Zoroastrianism:
Zoroastrianism was founded by the Persian prophet Zarathustra. Zoroastrianism challenged polytheism of earlier times. It is said that in response to the violence of the cattle raids, Zarathustra recast polytheism to a single god. Ahura Mazda, a single god, is the source of truth, light and goodness. He would restore the world to its earlier purity and peace. It was the freewill of humankind and a necessity for each individual to choose between good and evil. The followers of Ahura Mazda will have eternal life in Paradise. This principle greatly influenced Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Zoroastrianism never became an active missionary religion. It never spread past Egypt, Mesopotamia and Anatolia. Alexander the Great's invasion destroyed Zoroastrianism initially and even more so with the arrival of Islam and Arabian empires. The believers of Zoroastrianism fled to India and the people became known as Persians. It never spread past Persia. Like Buddhism, Zoroastrian faith vanished from its place of origin.
Judaism:
Judaism was developed amount the Hebrews as recorded in the Old Testament of the Bible. There was a migration from Mesopotamia to Palestine under the leadership of Abraham. A portion of these people fled to Egypt, were enslaved and then escaped to a region of their kinfolk in Palestine. There they established small states which eventually split into two parts, the northern kingdom was called Israel and the southern states were known as Judah. They were considered a displaced people.
Judaism has a distinct conception of God, referred to as Yahweh. He is a powerful and jealous deity who demanded exclusive loyalty which for some, was a difficult requirement. Some Jews turned from pastoral life to agriculture and were continually attracted by fertility gods. The relationship with Yahweh is a contract or covenant. Obey Him and He will protect. Unlike impersonal conceptions of the ultimate reality found in Daoism and Hinduism, Yahweh is a divine person with whom people could actively communicate with. There is a distinctive conception of the divine-singular, transcendent, personal, separate from nature, engaged in history, demanding social justice and moral righteousness above sacrifices and rituals. God provided the foundation on which both Christianity and Islam were built.
Classical Greece:
Classical Greece did not create and enduring religions tradition. Greek thinkers of the classical era generated no lasting religious tradition of world historical importance. The mythological framework was abandoned and in its place developed a form of thinking that bore similarities to secularism of Confucian thought in China. It is uncertain why Greek thought went in that direction, perhaps it is due to the diversity and incoherence of mythology , the intellectual stimulation of great civilizations and the possible influence of the growing role of law in Athenian political life.
Greeks seldom agreed with one another. There was an emphasis on argument, logic and relentless questioning. The best example was Socrates of Athens. He engaged others in conversations of the good life. He challenged conventional ideas about the importance of wealth and power in living and instead urged the pursuit of wisdom and virtue. He was critical of Athenian democracy and often had positive things to say about Sparta. Socrates died at the hand of an Athenian jury who felt philosophy was a threat as well as an engaging past time.
Greek rationalism, art, literature and theater persisted long after the glory days of Athens. The Roman Empire facilitated the spread of Greek culture. Christian theology was expressed in terms of Greek philosophical concepts. Greek texts were preserved in Byzantium. Direct access to Greek texts was more difficult in the West but was then rediscovered in the 12th century. Greek legacy has been viewed as the central element of emerging "Western" civilization. It has played a role in formulating updated Christian theology and Europe's scientific revolution. It also entered Islamic culture and its rediscovery in the West was largely in part through Arabic translations.
Comparing Jesus and the Buddha:
Jesus:
from the province of Judea in the Roman Empire
was a rural, small-town worker from a lower-class family
had intense devotion to a single, personal deity
had relationship with God
performed miracles
teachings had sharper social and political edge than Buddha
spoke clearly and on behalf of the lower class and those not accepted in society
had only 3 years of public life
teachings antagonized Jewish and Roman authorities
was crucified as a common criminal
Buddha:
born to royalty and luxury
ignored the supernatural
involved no miracles
taught path of intense self-effort, ethical living and mindfulness as a means of ending suffering
had 40 years of public life
his teachings and message was less threatening to those in political power
he died a natural death at the age of 80
Both Jesus and the Buddha called for personal transformation of their followers through letting go of things that cause suffering. Neither had any intention of founding a new religion. Both sought to reform traditions from which they had come.
Both Jesus and the Buddha became spiritual leaders who claimed to have personally experienced another level of reality. These "wisdom teachers" challenged conventional values of their time and urged renunciation of wealth and emphasized the importance of love and compassion. Although neither claimed divine status, both were transformed by their followers into gods. Their teachings spread widely beyond their places of origin.
Christianity and Buddhism: New Religions
Christianity:
Christianity became a world religion from St. Paul. Christianity spread gradually with the Roman Empire after Jesus' death. Reports of Jesus' miracles and healings attracted converts by the way members cared for one another. Constantine's conversion gave strong state support. Roman rulers sought to use popular Christianity as the glue to hold together the diverse population in a weakening state.
Christianity was a hierarchical organization. It excluded women in leadership and priestly roles. The bishop of Rome emerged as the dominant leader, the pope. There was a concern for unity in matters of doctrine and practice which contributed to the split between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox. There was and continues to be a controversy about the nature of Jesus, his relationship to God, and the doctrine of the Trinity.
Buddhism:
Buddhism was supported by Ashoko. Buddhism never promoted exclusion of other faiths. It sought religious tolerance rather than uniformity. It died out in India as it was absorbed into reviving Hinduism.
There was a clash over various interpretations of Buddhas teachings, prompting two schools of Buddhism, Theravada and Mahaya. The division was not as violent as Christendom. And unlike Christendom, there is no hierarchy in Buddhism.
Closing:
Religion is a sensitive subject for historians. For believers, religion goes beyond earthly evidence. Religions present themselves as timeless, but historians see the development over time as a human phenomenon. There is a constant debate on which tradition represents the "real" version of faith.
Chapter Questions:
1. How does the Daoist outlook differ from that of Confucianism?
2. In what ways does Buddhism reflect Hindu traditions and in what ways does it challenge them?
3. In what ways are Jesus and the Buddha similar and in what ways are they different?
Monday, May 23, 2011
Chapters 1-3
Chapters 1 through 3 gives a brief history of the beginning of mankind and early civilization.
Chapter 1 introduces the Paleolithic Age and emergence of homo sapiens in Africa and the gradual migration to other parts of the world based on a gathering and hunting means of survival. The only deliberate migration was to the Pacific by canoes. Migrants to the Pacific brought with them plants and animals and unlike the migrants to the other parts of the world, had an already systemzied hierarchy and rules for society. The other societies were small, had no class systems, and were very simple. Strayer states the first human societies were overall tanquil and socially equal, however, there is evidence of physical competition between males and wife beating. I thought he could have elaborated into why this may have been and what problems such a simple socitey had that resulted in this type of aggressive behavior. It was interesting to read about the two Paleolithic societies of the san of south Africa and Chumash of southern california. However, I would have liked to have known what their reactions and views of the "modern" world are, if they even had any.
Chapter 2 discusses the emergence and effects of agriculture to societies. I thought too much was spent comparing the agricultural beginnings in the different regions of the world. I was more interested to read about the effects it had on the regions and the types of societies that came to be. I found the early settlement of northern China and chiefdoms of the Pacific islands most interesting. Northern China's earliest society seems to have been very organzied and structured and thought it intriguing that they used kilns and pottery wheels . I picture a very serene socitey. The chiefdoms of the Pacific, to me, seem to have been more militant and abrasive, putting emphasis on power and entitlement.
Chapter 3 explains the beginning of civilizations. In my earlier years of education, I remember there has always been much emphasis on the study of civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt, the emergence of city-states. I liked how Strayer gave reference to the first civilizations to other parts of the world such as Peru, Pakistan and China and Mexico. I thought he could have gone into a little more detail on the Chinese dynasties and its cultural continuity.
Chapter 1 introduces the Paleolithic Age and emergence of homo sapiens in Africa and the gradual migration to other parts of the world based on a gathering and hunting means of survival. The only deliberate migration was to the Pacific by canoes. Migrants to the Pacific brought with them plants and animals and unlike the migrants to the other parts of the world, had an already systemzied hierarchy and rules for society. The other societies were small, had no class systems, and were very simple. Strayer states the first human societies were overall tanquil and socially equal, however, there is evidence of physical competition between males and wife beating. I thought he could have elaborated into why this may have been and what problems such a simple socitey had that resulted in this type of aggressive behavior. It was interesting to read about the two Paleolithic societies of the san of south Africa and Chumash of southern california. However, I would have liked to have known what their reactions and views of the "modern" world are, if they even had any.
Chapter 2 discusses the emergence and effects of agriculture to societies. I thought too much was spent comparing the agricultural beginnings in the different regions of the world. I was more interested to read about the effects it had on the regions and the types of societies that came to be. I found the early settlement of northern China and chiefdoms of the Pacific islands most interesting. Northern China's earliest society seems to have been very organzied and structured and thought it intriguing that they used kilns and pottery wheels . I picture a very serene socitey. The chiefdoms of the Pacific, to me, seem to have been more militant and abrasive, putting emphasis on power and entitlement.
Chapter 3 explains the beginning of civilizations. In my earlier years of education, I remember there has always been much emphasis on the study of civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt, the emergence of city-states. I liked how Strayer gave reference to the first civilizations to other parts of the world such as Peru, Pakistan and China and Mexico. I thought he could have gone into a little more detail on the Chinese dynasties and its cultural continuity.
Sunday, May 22, 2011
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